To investigate the influence of the dam, flow levels during spring break-up were studied and it was found that the contribution from the Peace River (measured directly past the dam) during spring break-up was higher after the dam was constructed than before, so another factor must be responsible for the lack of ice jam floods. Studies of the inputs from tributaries found that the Smoky River had previously been contributing a significant amount of discharge during the spring break-up but had not been doing so recently. Climate studies revealed two climate patterns in the area, one which caused high precipitation in the Smoky and one which did not, and found that the dry pattern had been dominating. To stimulate an ice jam flood, precipitation in the Smoky basin was monitored, and one year when it was high and the contribution from the Smoky during the spring break-up was estimated to be large, BC Hydro was asked to release extra water from the dam. They complied, and an ice jam flood was successfully triggered.

As climate change will cause different changes in temperature and precipitation in different regions, its affects on ice jams will vary regionally. In some areas, storms during the spring breakup are predicted to become more common, which would increase discharge and increase the risk of ice jam floods.

To examine the effects of climate change on ice jams, we will examine two rivers. In the Saint John basin, an increase in the number of mild days during winter was observed. This increases the chance of mid-winter breakups. In the Miramichi River, no significant trends in freeze up have been observed, while a significant trend in later freeze ups is occurring in the Saint John River and many other regions including Europe. Ice cover thickness also showed no significant trend in the Miramichi River, but decreases have been observed in some areas, illustrating the regional nature of climate change. Likewise, the Miramichi River has seen only a minor advance in spring breakup, while the Saint John River and most regions of Canada have seen a more significant advance. Ice jam severity is best predicted by the maximum daily flow in April. Maximum daily April flow has increased in the Miramichi River. The area has seen a cooling trend which is most significant during the spring and summer. Winter flows are increasing but have not been high enough to cause any midwinter breakups. In the Saint John River, winter flows have seen greater increases. Greater variability in flow has also been observed, as well as a warming trend.

Mid-winter breakups are common in moderate regions of Canada such as BC and the Atlantic provinces, but do not occur in colder areas. As the climate warms, these devestating events may start to occur in more places and with greater frequency.

Permafrost is warming along with the rest of the Arctic. A study of Arctic lakes in Siberia observed that many lakes have disappeared or shrunk in the last 30-40 years. Lakes in areas of continuous and discontinuous permafrost experienced the most shrinkage, likely due to permafrost degradation allowing them to drain to the subsurface. As warming continues, some regions of the Arctic will see shifts in the type of permafrost they experience (continuous to discontinuous, or discontinuous to sporadic) and deepening of the active layer, accompanied by changes in vegetation and sedimentation. Thawing permafrost could release more sediment into waterways, increasing turbidity and decreasing light availability for photosynthetic organisms. At the same time, more nutrients are likely to be released from the permafrost. Permafrost degradation will also affect the distribution and size of peatlands and other wetlands, which are important productive areas of the Arctic.

The active layer is normally leached of nutrients but often has high organic carbon content. Nutrients and other minerals may be concentrated in permafrost below the active layer. As warming occurs, this deeper permafrost will start to melt and release salts and nutrients. What impacts will this have on aquatic organisms? Very high concentrations of calcium and sulfate were found in thaw slumps, where slumping of the active layer exposed deeper permafrost to the surface and allowed it to begin thawing. Some research has been done on pairs of Arctic lakes to determine the affect that slumping has on Arctic lake biota. Slumped lakes were found to have lower levels of dissolved organic carbon than their unslumped counterparts, higher ion concentrations, as well as slightly lower levels of nutrients in the water column, which was not expected. No significant change in planktonic chlorophyll content was observed. Macrophytes and bacteria might be responsible for the lower levels of nutrients, and research is continuing.

The Cellulose Plant Conflict

In April of 2005, construction was started on a cellulose plant on the Uruguay side of the river which would be a major boost to the struggling Uruguay economy. Argentina protested that the plant would pollute the river and that they had not been consulted about the plant as stipulated in the Uruguay River Statute. Uruguay claimed that Argentina had been consulted and did not express disapproval for the plant. Opposition to the plant is led by the Citizens’ Environmental Assembly of Gualeguaychu, the Argentinean town located across the river from the proposed plant site. The Assembly organized blockades of the Libertador General San Martín Bridge, connecting Gualeguaychu with Fray Bentos, Uruguay, one of only three bridges connecting the countries. Argentina submitted a complaint to the International Court of Justice who ruled in Uruguay’s favour. The government of Argentina responded to the ruling by speaking out against the blockades, but not taking action against them. This conflict is still ongoing with both construction on the plant and occasional blockades continuing.

Water Quality and Quantity Issues

Though rainfall and river discharge are highly variable seasonally and regionally, the region is quite wet and water is generally available in sufficient quantities throughout the region for present agricultural (including irrigation), domestic, and industrial use.
Water quality, however, is a concern. Millions of people rely on the river for their water supply and would be compromised if it became too polluted. The binational and multinational agreements concerning the river include environmental standards to limit pollution, but the recent cellulose plant conflict shows that conflict over pollution exists despite these precautions.

Another problem is sediment load. Much of the river basin has been logged, increasing soil erosion and leading to higher sediment levels in the river. This puts more stress on water treatment plants. There are currently no plans in place to counteract this rise in sedimentation.

Future Considerations

Construction of more hydroelectric dams will further alter the nature of the river by restricting sediment and artificially regulating water flow. Existing reservoirs may be expanded to meet growing needs, forcing relocation of villages. The growing megacities of Buenos Aires and Montevideo will place further stress on the rivers. Montevideo currently does not use water from the Rio de la Plata which is brackish by the time it reaches the city, but current growth and overuse of aquifers may force Montevideo to pipeline water in from a less saline part of the river. Buenos Aires uses both groundwater and water from the Plata and releases its sewage into the river untreated. Pollution from these cities could negatively influence upstream flora and fauna, with migratory fish being especially vulnerable.

Background Information

The Uruguay River begins in Brazil, flowing towards the west. After the Pepiri-Gauçu joins it, it becomes the border between Argentina and Brazil, and changes course to run southward. Further downstream it acts as the border between Argentina and Uruguay. It is joined by the Rio Negro, a river which starts in Brazil before running through Uruguay. It joins the Parana River to form the Rio de la Plata, a coastal estuary on which the major cities of Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Montevideo (Uruguay) sit.

Treaties

The countries that share the Uruguay River have signed a number of treaties concerning its management:

• Treaty for the use of Shared Natural Resources of the Bordering Stretches of the Uruguay River and its tributary, the Pepiri-Guaçu River. Signed by Brazil and Argentina.
• Treaty of the Rio de la Plata. This treaty, signed in 1977 by Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay, concerns water resource management, environmental standards, and regional development throughout the Rio de la Plata basin.
• Statute of the Uruguay River. Signed between Argentina and Uruguay in 1973, an update of an agreement initially signed in 1938, outlining environmental standards, shared water use, and hydroelectric power generation.

Hydroelectricity and Industry

The Uruguay River is currently dammed for hydroelectric purposes in Brazil, at the Ita Dam, and on the border of Uruguay and Argentina at the Salto Grande Dam. Brazil and Argentina have plans to build a series of dams along their shared length of the river.

The river is used for the processing of agricultural products in Brazil. There is some concern about pollution from these activities, but they are regulated to acceptable standards.

The Wheel Keeper by Robert Pepper-Smith

“In the village, the house my family shared with nostre nonna was called ‘the castle’ because it was built out of Italian stone to last. Now its hallways are currents, with the fish we call redfish in them.”

Set in the interior of British Columbia in the 1960s, The Wheel Keeper depicts a town of Italian immigrants who are being displaced by the Hydro company, which is building a dam in their place. The book focuses on immigrant culture, with the impending inundation of their town as the backdrop.

Built on the shores of a river, water is vital to the town. The region is arid and subject to severe forest fires. The orchards that initially drew people to the area and that bring in an influx of migrant workers, or golondrinas, each year for the harvest, are likely only possible due to irrigation from the river. The narrator’s father operates the ferry, the only connection between the two shores of the river in a town too small to merit a bridge. Thus water is portrayed as allowing people to earn their livelihood.

But what it can give, it can take away. Perhaps overwhelmed by the water, or perhaps intimidated by the government of their new country, the residents of the town do not resist as Hydro buys their land, burns their houses, then bulldozes the remnants to the ground. Only the alcoholic uncle suggests that they put “a little grape syrup in their tanks” to slow down the Hydro authorities.

Sustainability and water pollution are not discussed at all in the book, as they are not concerns of the town’s residents. This reflects the time period and circumstances in which the story takes place – in the 1960s, environmentalism was not very influential, and a town of poor Italian immigrants had more pressing concerns.

The most striking portrayal of water in this book is what it represents. The transformation of the town into a “grey mass” of reservoir is an allegory for how vibrant immigrant culture is eventually assimilated in to the dominant society. As Canadians, we pride ourselves on multiculturalism, claiming that the United States is the realm of assimilation and the ‘melting pot’ mentality, but it is undeniable that to some extent the same process occurs in this country. Just as the water washed away their houses, Canadian society washes away their culture.

The fragility of water is not portrayed in this book. Instead, water is described as strong and powerful. Books like this allow people to see water as something that does not require stewardship. Sustainability is never an issue in the book, even though the region in which it takes place is arid. Water in this book represents a negative thing – assimilation. The book does not show water in the form of lakes or rivers to be beautiful, just threatening.